Some non-verbal signals in reading comprehension

Some non-verbal signal are when the meaning of a text is not only conveyed by means of words.sometimes in a form of different fornts,bold print,underling or italics.
See the picture below

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The meaning of these style features may vary depending on each text.examine the picture above it may be used to emphasize a word;in another,italics my be used to indicate subtitles.

What is reading comprehension?

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What is reading comprehension?It means understanding thoroughly what you read.it is not enough that you know the meaning of individual words,though;the answer is not by taking the safe route in reading but by developing skills in reading comprehension.

One Ways of reading Effectively

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One way of reading effectively means absorbing the most number of ideas in the shortest possible time.It also means choosing your reading materials carefully and being anlytical of those that you read as to their contents and the manner in which they were written.There are several ways of getting an overview of a reading material.


1.  Look on the front cover,the graphics or pictures, the blurb on the back cover,the number or pages,the  length of the chapters,and style presentation.


2. Some background of publication date,foreword,an introduction and information about the author.
3. Identify the key points covered,looking at the table of contents,index,and chapter headings.


Becoming proficient in english language only if you make reading as a habit.

Listening to those who speak native english

 
One of the easiest ways to learn correct english is by listening to those who speak the language fluently.Chances are,if you are studying English as a second or third language,you will be around people who are similarly situated,that is,people who are not native english speakers themselves.
What you should do about this? reading is one of the most effective ways of improving your command of the language.
By reading english language material you can gain
1.You will learn new words,idiomatic expressions or figurative phrases.
2.You will familiarize with the,how words can be grouped together to form sentences,paragraphs,and the whole compositions.
3. You will find that your getting out of your comfort zone by the pieces of information that you acquire by reading

How skimming and scanning a book,a reading technique

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Skimming it gives you such general information.
Before you read a book,or any written material in detail,take a moment to go over it.by reading quickly without pausing to study the fine points.it doesn't mean you are reading it without understanding .
Try  understanding it quickly looking at
1.  The type of text you are reading - is it a short story?,or an essay?or a novel?
2.  The kind of audience the writer are trying to reach out - is it for business,student,politician.
3.  The purpose of the author - is the author trying to entertain the intended readers,or teach there audience.
4.  The General contents of the text - is it about the national georaphic?,self development,or some basic steps in conduction a certain process?

Scanning is when you are already having skimmed the text,study in detail,by reading it more carefully and looking for the particular pieces of information that you are interested in.

Employ your time in improving yourself

Employ your time in improving yourself by other men's writings,so you shall come easily by what others have labored for by Socrates


One of the best ways of improving your English is to read as many English materials as you can get hold of. From some writings  materials that you will encounter, you will surely gain basic knowledge of English and its practical applications.You can also encounter new - and more - words to enhance your vocabulary.Reading habitually is a good way to advance your appreciation and understanding of English.

Food for thought 
     I believe that every English poet should read the english classics,master the rules of grammar before he attempts to bend or break them.... by robert Graves.

spelling

The dictionary is also helpful as far as your spelling is concerned.you can consult it to learn,check or recheck the spelling of a particularly troublesome word.look at a word over and over again you will learn how it looks on paper and spot spelling errors next time you encounter the word.try recalling the word at other occasions,.some may find it easier to recall a word by sounding it out in their own way rather than by picturing it. if you are one of them,you will certainly learn from reading a lot,and taking note of some typical sequences of letters.practice reading aloud and you are on your way to being a good speller.

vocabulary

The best way to build your vocabulary is to read.be a voracious reader.read everything that you can get your hands on.but do not just read without thinking;study the nuances of english language and familiarize yourself with words.develop a genuine interest in what you are reading.

1.read,read,read......
2.gain access to helpful tools like the dictionary
3.write down the words that you can't define.
4.practice
5.take note of the word in its context,that is,the way it is used in the sentence.

informal english

If the sentence sounds like everyday conversation,it is generally not formal english,it is used in casual compositions,informal articles,and everyday conversation.It uses a smaller vocabulary than formal english,and usually includes colloquial words or slang.sentences are often simpler and shorter,and tend to avoid the more formal punctuation of the semicolon and colon. 


contractions and the first person,as well as the use of the pronoun"you"are acceptable.
example

formal    english                        informal english

consume                                      eat
fashionable                                  cool
comprehend                                 understand

formal english

It is often used in conventional writing.contractions and abbreviations are avoided,and a more specialized and complex vocabulary is used.certain words are not acceptable,most notable of which are colloquial words or slang. The pronoun"you" is not used in formal english;the word"one"is used in its stead.written or spoken,must be clear to your readers or listeners.

Idiomatic expressions(idioms)

It is a group of words,whose combined meaning is not the same as the ordinary meaning of the individual words.It is used to express something that other words do not express as clearly or as cleverly.Like a figure of speech,an idiom expression gives english its color and vitality,it is frequently used in daily speech and appear in newspapers,books,television shows,and movies.it tend to be informal,allowing your reader or listener the opportunity to obtain a more colorful image of what you are saying.

example        

apple of one's eye               special favorite,beloved person or thing
an  arm and a leg                an exorbitant amount of money
couch potato                       a person who enjoys relaxing at home,especially watching television

Simile

It's the comparison of two  unlike things.It uses the words "like" or "as." 
example    

                  gabriel  is as strong as hercules," Gabriel is shown to be possesing the same characteristics as one of a character in the bible,that is ,he is fierce,strong and brave.

Cliche

   A cliche is a phrase,often metaphorical,that has been used so often that it has become commonplace.When an expression is called a cliche,it is considered to have become so dull that it no longer creates the vivid image that a wel-written figure of speech ought to evoke.
example              as white as a sheet
                           as light as a feather

Hyperbole

Is a deliberate exaggeration or overstatement used for effect,Such statements are not literally true,but people make them to sound impressive or to emphasize something.
example                   I tried a thousand times
                                His feet were as big as a barge.

Irony

Is a means of expression that suggests,humorously or angrily,the opposite meaning of what the words used normally mean.
example                      His " I'm so glad you lost my wallet,kim."(This means that she isn't glad that he   lost  her wallet.)

Oxymoron

Is a figure  of speech combining incongruous or contradictory words,usually for descriptive purposes.
example                          a little big
                                       original copy

Proverb

Its a short traditional saying that is thought to express wisdom.Many traditional proverbs are considered as cliches today.
example                           A rolling stone gathers no moss.
                                        Too many cooks spoil the broth.

Figure of Speech

A figure of speech also known as figurative speech is a word or group of words that contains images.Through the expressive use of language,such figure or speech can breathe life into an otherwise uninteresting written work. A figure of speech helps create clear and vivid images.Word are not used literally but are instead used to suggest an image or a comparison.
some commonly used figures of speech are metaphor,personification,and simile.

Metaphor

  Is a figure of speech in which a word or group of words is applied to an object or action that it does not literally stand for in order to imply a resemblance.Simple metaphors make simple comparisons,while extended metaphor treat different aspects of the things compared separately.


Simple Metaphor
 she was an apple of the eye in the company of her brothers.

extended metaphor
she was the apple,her rosy cheeks were the skin of an apple;her green eyes were the leaves.

other example of metaphor
No man is an island.
He is a leader in battle

Personification
is a figure of speech in which an animal or inanimate object is represented as having human attributes,such as human form,character,feelings ,or behavior.Ideas and abstractions can also be personified.
example

money talks.
this room has seen the successes and failures of a couple through the years.

Homonyms

It's spelled differently and have different meanings.They are to be distinguished from some words in American and British English.which are spelled differently but have the same meaning.
example


1. allowed  -   permitted
    aloud      -   in a voice that can be heard


2. ascent     -    way up
    assent     -   consent
3. feat        -  remarkable   achievement
    feet        -  part of the leg below the ankle(plural)

Antonyms

Its a words that have opposite meanings.
example   "happy" and "sad" are antonyms.
               I am happy because the visitors have left.
               I am sad because the visitors have left.
when the word "happy" in the first sentence is replaced by the word "sad" in the second sentence,the meaning of the statement changes. This is because the meaning of the word "sad" in "not happy" In  the second sentence,it is as if you said,"I am not happy because the visitors have left."This is the exact opposite of the what you said in the first sentence.


word                            Synonyms                     Antonyms


malicious                   mean,spiteful,                friendly,kind,
                                       hateful                        benevolent


radiant                       shining,beautiful,           sad,gloomy,
                                     charming                    pessimistic

Synonym

Its a different words or phrases in the same language that have a similar meaning.
example      "bigger" and "larger" are synonyms. In comparing rocks and pebbles,either one could  be  used in the sentence.      
                                 Rocks are bigger than pebbles.
                                 Rocks are larger than pebbles.
Both sentences have the same meaning because the words "big" and "large" are synonyms.("bigger"and "larger" are the comparative forms of "big" and "large.")

Confusing words

The following words have often been misused,Some are similar -sounding but spelled differently;others are confusing as to their usage.study the list of words below,their meaning,and the examples for each.

                                        any way                                   anyway

meaning                          any particular                          In any case;
                                      course,direction,                       nonetheless
                                            or manner
example                        Any way we take                    we can walk but
                                      would not lead to                     we will not get
                                          the house.                                 there anyway.

                                         all ready                                  already
meaning                       everything is ready                   previously
                                      the children are                        the children
                                      all ready to go to park.            are already in the park.

                                                   in                                     into
meaning                           refers to position                  suggests motion
example                           the thief is in the building              We saw the thief
                                                                                         going into the building.  

non-erroneous usages

There are usages in English grammar commonly considered to be erroneous,but are however correct.

Ending a sentence with a preposition

This is an artificial "rule"that ignores standard usage and was started years ago by a book writer.Although some people have since accepted it as a fact,it is not an erroneous usage because some sentences would sound awkward if you avoid ending them with a preposition.A witticism attributed to sir Winston churchill makes the point well:"This is the sort of English up with which i will not put".

Beginning a sentence with a conjunction

        while a sentence beginning with a conjunction can be made a clause in compound sentences,it can also be an effective tool to begin sentences with a conjunction in order to emphasize a point,such as in a persuasive essay.Always check whether a sentence beginning with a conjunction would serve its purpose better as a separate sentence or as a clause in a compound sentence.

Forward or forwards?

             although some books prefer"forward" and "toward" to "forwards" and "towards,"none of these forms is really incorrect.The only difference is that the forms without the final  s are considered more formal.

Is "none"singular or plural?

   Some grammarians insist that since "none" is derived from"no one,"it should always be singular ,as in "None of us is gettting a massage."However,in the earliest form of Engligh,"none" is most often treated as a plural."none of us are getting a massage" is acceptable usage.

common concerns in english(Erroneous usages)

Erroneous usages

Fused Sentences

    when two sentences or independent clauses are place together in one sentence with no separating punctuation.
example          The books for school are thick and heavy they are too expensive to lose.


to repair fused sentences,put the appropriate punctuation mark at the end of the first sentence or independent clause.

Run on sentences and Comma Splices

A run -on sentence contains at least two independent clauses,but the two independent clauses have not been properly connected.When two independent clauses are connected only by a comma, they form a run-on sentence called comma splice.
example                           It is getting late,I have to go home.
 To repair run-on sentences,replace the comma with the appropriate punctuation mark.
example                          a period or a semicolon.

Misplace Modifiers

There is a misplaced modifier when a modifier is in the wrong place in the sentence.A misplaced modifier gives the impression that the word (or words) it is closed to is the one being modified. Simple modifiers,such as only,just,nearly,and barely are the most frequently misplaced modifiers.
example
         the bullet nearly missed him by an inch;it hit the wall instead.(if the bullet nearly missed,it would not have missed and hit the wall instead.)


To repair misplace modifiers,you have to move the modifiers to its proper position,that is,near the word or words it modifies.
example                    the bullet missed him by nearly an inch;it hit the wall instead.

Dangling Modifiers

You have what is called a dangling modifier when a modifier improperly describes something.This often happens with beginning participial phrases.


To repair dangling modifiers,rewrite the sentence so that the modifier and the word or word being modified are placed beside each other.
example                      Applauding enthusiastically,the cheering spectators raised the posters.

Sentence Fragments

             A sentence fragment is not a sentence because it cannot stand by itself.It does not contain a single independent clause.A group of words may contain a subject and a verb buy may not express a complete thought.The number of words in a sentence fragment may mislead the writer into thinking that he has written a complete sentence.
example             Some of the students enrolled in the English class that was dissolved last semester(this sentence fragment does not say what some of the students do or are.)


To repair sentence fragments,identify the verb that will complete the thought.In the first example above,ask,"what are some of the students enrolled in the English class that was dissolved last semester doing or being ?"Then add the answer to  the sentence fragment.
example                 some of the students enrolled in the English class that was dissolved last semester are taking another class this semester.(subject are [some of he students]and predicate[are taking].This is a complete sentence.)

Double Negatives

  some people erroneously use two negative words,a double negative words,a double negative,in one sentence when only one is necessary to express that they are denying something or saying no.
example             rodolfo did not give his daughter nothing


to repair a double negative,remove one of  the negative words and ,if necessary,replace it with the appropriate word.
example           rodolfo did not give his daugther    anything(or,rodolfo gave his daughter  nothing.)

Contraction

Is a shortened form of a phrase.It is used in informal speech and is made by taking two words(one of which is a verb)and dropping a letter or letters from either or both of the words,then using an apostrophe to replace the letter dropped.Note that the rule is different in the case of will not,which also drops the letters -ill in the word will and replace them with -o.


                           Standard contractions

                           Nouns or Pronoun + be

Iam                   we are                               when is 
(I'm)                  (we're)                               (when's)
you are              they are                               how is 
(you're)              (they're)                               (how's)
he is                     who is                                 there is
(he'is)                 (who's)                                ( there is)


                                 Pronoun + will
I will (I'll)                               we will(we'll)
you will (you'll)                      they will (they'll)
she will(she'll)                       who will(who'll)


                               Noun or Pronoun + would


I would (I'd)                               we would (we'd)
you would(you'd)                        they would(they'd)
she would(she'd)                          kenneth would(Kenneth'd)


                             Verb + not


are not (aren't)                           did not(didn't)
is not(isn't)                                do not (don't)
were not (weren't)                     would not(wouldn't)



There is no contraction for am not. The proper way is to make a contraction for I am,and add the word not,as in I'm not.